발해
渤海(Balhae)
발해는 698년에 고구려 장수였던 대조영(大祚榮)에 의해 건국되어, 통일신라와 남북국을 이루다가 926년에 멸망했다. 처음에는 ‘진국(振國, 震國)’이라 했으나, 713년에 당나라로부터 책봉을 받은 뒤로부터 ‘발해’란 명칭을 사용하기 시작했다. 발해의 역사는 818년 선왕(宣王)의 즉위를 경계로 전기와 후기로 나뉜다. 전기에는 2대 무왕(武王)의 대외정복과 3대 문왕(文王) 의 문물제도 정비가 두드러지나 그 뒤에는 내분기를 겪었다. 후기에 들어 왕권을 재차 강화하여 중흥과 융성을 맞이하면서 당나라로부터 ‘해동성국’이란 영예의 칭호를 얻었다. 그러나 10세기 초에 쇠퇴에 접어든 데다가 거란의 침략을 받아서 멸망했고, 일부 유민은 고려로 들어왔다.
영역은 현재의 만주 동 · 중부와 연해주 남부, 북한 일대에 걸쳐 있었으며, 전성기에는 사방 5천리에 이르렀다고 한다. 대체로 통일신라의 4~5배, 고구려의 1.5~2배정도 크기였다. 가장 오랜 기간 수도였던 상경(上京)을 포함한 5경(京)지역이 있었던 만주 동부지역이 정치적 · 문화적 중심지를 이루었다.
지배층은 고(高)씨를 위시한 고구려계 인물이 주축이었고 피지배층은 말갈족(靺鞨族)이 다수였다. 대외적으로는 당나라에 가장 활발히 왕래했고 일본, 신라, 중앙아시아 지역과도 자주 교류했다. 이에 따라 발해문화에는 고구려와 말갈 및 당나라의 요소가 가장 뚜렷하게 나타나고, 그 밖의 지역에서 유입된 것들이나 발해 독자적인 요소도 발견된다.
발해사는 지리적으로 한 · 중 · 러에 걸쳐 있었기에 한국에서 뿐 아니라 중국과 러시아에서도 자국사로 연구하고 있으며, 여기에 일본도 동참하고 있으니, 한국사에서 가장 국제적인 관심사가 되어 있는 분야이다. 문헌 기록의 부족을 고고학 연구로 메우고 있지만, 아직은 자국적 관점에서 연구함으로써 정보의 교류는 활발하지 못하다. 국내에서는 서울대학교 박물관이 발해 유물을 유일하게 소장하고 있다.
영역은 현재의 만주 동 · 중부와 연해주 남부, 북한 일대에 걸쳐 있었으며, 전성기에는 사방 5천리에 이르렀다고 한다. 대체로 통일신라의 4~5배, 고구려의 1.5~2배정도 크기였다. 가장 오랜 기간 수도였던 상경(上京)을 포함한 5경(京)지역이 있었던 만주 동부지역이 정치적 · 문화적 중심지를 이루었다.
지배층은 고(高)씨를 위시한 고구려계 인물이 주축이었고 피지배층은 말갈족(靺鞨族)이 다수였다. 대외적으로는 당나라에 가장 활발히 왕래했고 일본, 신라, 중앙아시아 지역과도 자주 교류했다. 이에 따라 발해문화에는 고구려와 말갈 및 당나라의 요소가 가장 뚜렷하게 나타나고, 그 밖의 지역에서 유입된 것들이나 발해 독자적인 요소도 발견된다.
발해사는 지리적으로 한 · 중 · 러에 걸쳐 있었기에 한국에서 뿐 아니라 중국과 러시아에서도 자국사로 연구하고 있으며, 여기에 일본도 동참하고 있으니, 한국사에서 가장 국제적인 관심사가 되어 있는 분야이다. 문헌 기록의 부족을 고고학 연구로 메우고 있지만, 아직은 자국적 관점에서 연구함으로써 정보의 교류는 활발하지 못하다. 국내에서는 서울대학교 박물관이 발해 유물을 유일하게 소장하고 있다.
Balhae was established in AD 698 by Dae Jo-yeong, a former Koguryo general. Its territory included the northern regions of the Korean peninsula, with Unified Silla occupying the southern regions. Therefore, this period from the late seventh century to AD 926, whenBalhae fell to the Khitans, is at times referred to as the ‘North-South States Period’. When first established, the kingdom was called ‘Jin’, but it was renamed ‘Balhae’ in 713, following the Tang Dynasty’s formal acknowledgement of its legitimacy.
Balhae history can be divided into the ‘Early’ and ‘Late’ periods; the latter refers to the period following the coronation of King Seon in AD 818. The Early period witnessed, in particular, territorial expansion by the second king Mu and the consolidation of administrative and military systems by the third king Mun, but internal conflict, soon followed. The strengthening of royal authority which took place in the Late period brought about a new phase of restoration and prosperity which led the Tang Dynasty to refer to Balhae as ‘Haedong Seongguk(海東盛國)’, which means ‘the flourishing country that lies east of the sea’. Balhae fell into decline, however, in the late tenth century and Khitan invasions ultimately led to its demise. Of the Balhae refugees, some fled southwards and became subjects of the Goryeo kingdom.
Balhae territory covered the eastern and central regions of present-day Manchuria, the southern part of the Russian Primorye region and the northern part of the Korean peninsula. It is said that at its zenith, Balhae occupied an area of around five thousand ‘li’, (approximately 3,853,000 square kilometers), which is 4〜5 times greater than the territory of Unified Silla, and 1.5〜 2 times greater than that of Koguryo. The eastern region of Manchuria, where its five capitals, including the supreme capital Sanggyeong, were located may be regarded as the political and cultural center of Balhae.
The Balhae ruling elite consisted mainly of Koguryo descendants with the family name of Ko(高), while the majority of the underclass were of Malgal(Mohe) descent. Balhae maintained active foreign relations with the Tang Dynasty, as well as with Japan, Unified Silla and Central Asia. Balhae culture therefore contains strong influences from Koguryo, Malgal and Tang, in addition to elements from other regions, as well as cultural traits which are distinctive to Balhae.
The Balhae kingdom was spread out over an area which overlaps the present-day boundaries of Korea, China and Russia, and therefore the history of Balhae is regarded as ‘national history’ by these countries. As Balhae history has also attracted the attention of Japanese scholars, it can be said that Balhae representsa part of Korean history which is subject to great international interest. Due to the lack of written records, archaeological material has played a significant role in reconstructing Balhae history. The issue of nationalism which surrounds the study of Balhae remains, however, has hindered the exchange of information between researchers. Seoul National University is currently the only institution in South Korea to have a collection of Balhae artifacts.
Balhae history can be divided into the ‘Early’ and ‘Late’ periods; the latter refers to the period following the coronation of King Seon in AD 818. The Early period witnessed, in particular, territorial expansion by the second king Mu and the consolidation of administrative and military systems by the third king Mun, but internal conflict, soon followed. The strengthening of royal authority which took place in the Late period brought about a new phase of restoration and prosperity which led the Tang Dynasty to refer to Balhae as ‘Haedong Seongguk(海東盛國)’, which means ‘the flourishing country that lies east of the sea’. Balhae fell into decline, however, in the late tenth century and Khitan invasions ultimately led to its demise. Of the Balhae refugees, some fled southwards and became subjects of the Goryeo kingdom.
Balhae territory covered the eastern and central regions of present-day Manchuria, the southern part of the Russian Primorye region and the northern part of the Korean peninsula. It is said that at its zenith, Balhae occupied an area of around five thousand ‘li’, (approximately 3,853,000 square kilometers), which is 4〜5 times greater than the territory of Unified Silla, and 1.5〜 2 times greater than that of Koguryo. The eastern region of Manchuria, where its five capitals, including the supreme capital Sanggyeong, were located may be regarded as the political and cultural center of Balhae.
The Balhae ruling elite consisted mainly of Koguryo descendants with the family name of Ko(高), while the majority of the underclass were of Malgal(Mohe) descent. Balhae maintained active foreign relations with the Tang Dynasty, as well as with Japan, Unified Silla and Central Asia. Balhae culture therefore contains strong influences from Koguryo, Malgal and Tang, in addition to elements from other regions, as well as cultural traits which are distinctive to Balhae.
The Balhae kingdom was spread out over an area which overlaps the present-day boundaries of Korea, China and Russia, and therefore the history of Balhae is regarded as ‘national history’ by these countries. As Balhae history has also attracted the attention of Japanese scholars, it can be said that Balhae representsa part of Korean history which is subject to great international interest. Due to the lack of written records, archaeological material has played a significant role in reconstructing Balhae history. The issue of nationalism which surrounds the study of Balhae remains, however, has hindered the exchange of information between researchers. Seoul National University is currently the only institution in South Korea to have a collection of Balhae artifacts.
(translated by Ko Ilhong)
발해 9세기 영역도
